History of Psychology Faal
Psychology as part of physiology emerged in the 19th century along with advances in the natural sciences (natural science). In this phase of human thought continues to grow and many human physiological exploration empirically. Scientific context of the 19th century:
- Empirical research done in the field of physiological include: nerve activity, sensation / sensing, and physiological brain. The results of research in these three areas are very significant opening insights into humans so scientists reinforces the view that time the importance of systematic empirical strategy in any field of science.
- For the psychology of these results gave way to establish the physiological basis for mental operations. It is important to understand logically and empirically the mental activity itself
- Describe the position of modern psychology that is close to the field of medicine and psychiatry.
Francis Bacon (1561-1626), advocated the inductive method as the primary method in science because it departs from the observation of the real thing. In doing so he challenged the opinion of Aristotle and the Scholastic that deductive methods - inductive as strong. In such a context in ataslah said that Bacon 'disagree' with the speculative rationalism, although the idea itself is also very rational. By returning to the real facts, Bacon hopes science can be free from speculative principles but has a very strong hold. There are 3 major advance in the field of science that affect the establishment of psychology as an independent science disciplines and how your progress was in the 20th century:
1. Physiological: advances in the field of physiological, covering research in the areas of neural activity, sensation, and brains to give an empirical basis for the functions that were previously considered to be a function of the soul (psyche), which was also previously considered to be very abstract.
Important figures:
- Francoise Charles Bell-Magendie: the fact that the sensory and motor nerves to operate separately and direction. Scrape the assumption that human neural mencover both, communicating information to the motor nerves through the 'vibe' is derived from sensory information.
- Johannes Mueller: more emphasis on the process of nerve transmission. Doctrine of Specific Nerve Energies: nerve transmission is the process that bridges between the sensed object with the mind. So human awareness, is not solely caused by a particular object, nor is it due to the soul, but is mediated by the neurotransmitter. This view complements the explanation of the role of the mind and consciousness TTG (cogito ergo sum) and became the basis for research on the specific location of a particular function in the brain.
- Marshall Hall: reflex commandeered by the spinal cord (spinal cord) and not the nerves of the brain stem. Differentiating body movements into 4 groups: voluntary movement, respiratory movement, involuntary movement, and reflexes. His views sparked discussion on a very relevant awareness to the development of psychology.
- Paul Broca (1824 - 1880), found that Broca center controlling the activity of speech. He is an important figure in the study of physiological brain. This study evolved from phrenology (Gall & Spurzheim), the only approach that focuses on the brain time. The main focus of the exploration is to find a physiological brain physiological location of the mental parts, certain parts of the brain that is central of human mental activities.
- Pierre Flourens (1794-1867), tried to approach the non-pathological evidence of (complementary Broca), find the important centers of the brain, namely:
a. Cerebral hemispheres: willing, judging, memory, seeing, and hearing
b. Cerebellum: motor coordination
c. Medulla oblongata: mediation of the sensory and the motor function
d. Corpora quadrigemina: vision
e. Spinal cord: conduction
f. Nerves: excitation
Experts are busy counting physiological study of sensation, trying to decipher the anatomy of sensory receptors and analyzing the psychological experience produced by physiological processes. Leaders: Thomas Young (1773-1829): trichromatic theory Jan Purkinje (1787-1869): a systematic relationship between the structure of the eye and the nerve to the brain to explain perceptual error.
2. psychophysiological: psychophysics, is part of a discipline that focuses on the physiology of subjective experience in studying the relationship between physical stimuli and the sensations. Sensation perceived by human senses is seen as a reflection of the soul-body relationship and not solely be explained in terms of anatomy or physical. Psychophysics is a crucial transitional stage between the initial appearance of the field of physiological psychology as a discipline. Therefore psychophysics figures can be regarded as the founders of psychology.
Important figures:
- Gustav Fechner: the relationship between sensation and perception, psychophysical considered as an inexact science to explain the relationship between body and mind. He did not agree with materialism, that the mind must always be embodied in a tangible form can only be observed, otherwise he adhered to the tradition of German thought which diangagp mind as something that is active and has a structure independently. He proposed the empirical sciences of the mind in which the increased bodily and sensory stimulations regarded as an indicator or measurement of the intensity of mental experience. Main concepts: threshold or threshold. (absolute threshold, just noticeable threshold).
- Hermann von Helmholtz (1821-1894)
A pioneer of experimental psychology, many using reaction time in his research, is something that is still widely used in experimental psi until now. The concept: unconscious inference: inference results obtained based on human perception repeatable process that eventually becomes something that is not realized, 'irresisitible', once formed is difficult to consciously modified and generalized to similar stimuli in the environment. Another important concept: unbewusster schluss
The psychophysics figure shows the study area that are not easily accommodated in the physical sciences, physiological, or philosophy. This is a growing area of study into the object of study of psychology.
3. Evolution: Evolution, proposed by Charles Darwin (1809-1882) is a critical point in the thinking of the man as put forward the idea that human beings are part of the adaptation of living beings to nature, humans are not specially created and thus the difference with creatures others only gradual, not quality. This view is important and relevant to the development of psychology, in particular to provide an idea of the individual difference, the difference between individuals is also its only gradual, not quality.
Key people:
- Francis Galton (1822 - 1911): known as the father of British experimental psychology. Featuring practical and usability aspects of Darwin's theory of evolution, Darwin's theory of context transfer in the context of biological improvements in the community.
UNDERSTANDING PSYCHOLOGY PSYCHOLOGY FROM physiology & Physiology
- Psychology is the study of human behavior (BIGOT et al., 1950)
- Physiology is the study of the functions and activities of the tools of the human body
- Psychology of physiology is the study of the behavior / human behavior in relation to the functions and activities of organs.
Included in the coordinated devices are:
- The composition of the central nervous system
- Composition of the peripheral nervous system (periheral)
- Tools senses: vision / eye, hearing / ear, smell / nose, the taster / tongue, touch / skin
- Tools endocrine (hormone) glands that produce that can secrete hormones.
BRAIN
The brain is amazing that there are 100 billion nerve cells (neurons) are active, stick to the 900 billion neurons, the cells of nutrients and isolate the active neurons. Each neuron can grow 20,000 branches left and right brain.
- = LEFT BRAIN BRAIN BRAIN INSTINCT ACADEMIC = = = TATA LANGUAGE LEFT BRAIN, LOGIC, MEMORY, FIGURES, SCRIPTURES, ANALYSIS, RATIONAL, REALIZATION
- BRAIN RIGHT BRAIN CREATIVITY = = = EMOTIONAL BRAIN RIGHT BRAIN = RHYTHM, daydreams, IMAGINATION, Fantasies. MUSIC, COLOR, DIMENSIONS
BRAIN DEVELOPMENT (another name)
- Forebrain (forebrain) consists of:
- Telencephalon (endbrain) &
- Diencephalon (interbrain)
- Midbrain (midbrain) mesencephalon
- Hindbrain (hindbrain) consists of
- METENCEPHALON (afterbrain) &
- MYELENCEPHALON (marrowbrain)
GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT OF PHYSICAL BRAIN
- BIRTH: 25% of adult size (+ 350 grams) 87.5 grams
- 18 months (1.5 years): 50% of the adult size of 175 grams
- 72 months (6 years): 90% of the adult size of 315 grams
- 216 months (18 years): 100% adult size
BRAIN DEVELOPMENT (encephalon) IN embryonic
1. PROSENCEPHALON (forebrain) consists of: telencephalon (olfactory center) and diencephalon (hearing and balance center)
2. mesencephalon (midbrain) PERMANENT eyesight Center
3. RHOMBENCEPHALON (hindbrain) consists of: METENCEPHALON Center (motion) & MYELENCEPHALON (Center respiration = respiration Center)
INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT (INTELLIGENCE) AMERICAN & EUROPEAN VERSION OF THE BRAIN AND INDONESIAN VERSION
AMERICAN & EUROPEAN VERSION è 4 YEAR OF BIRTH: 50% POTENTIAL FOR ADULTS
è 4 YR YR 8: 80% POTENTIAL FOR ADULTS
è 8 YR 18 YR: 100%
è POTENTIAL OF ADULT VERSION INDONESIA 6 MONTH OF BIRTH: 50% POTENTIAL FOR ADULTS
è 6 MONTH 3 YEAR: 80% POTENTIAL FOR ADULTS
è 18 YR 3 YR: 100% POTENTIAL FOR ADULTS
Membrane structure
The structure of the cell membrane is a fluid mosaic models proposed by Singer and Nicholson in 1972. On the theory of fluid mosaic membrane is two layers of fat in the form of fluid lipid molecules can move laterally along the membrane layer. Membrane proteins arranged in irregular penetrate the fat layer. So we can say the cell membrane as a dynamic structure where the components are free to move and can be tied together in a variety of forms of interaction semipermanent constituent component of cell membranes include phospholipids, proteins, oligosaccharides, glikolidpid, and cholesterol. Muchus component of cell membranes in the lining membrane semipermanent
Two Layer Lipids
The main component of the cell membrane composed of phospholipids, other than that there are compounds such sfingomyelin lipid, cholesterol, and glikolipida. Phospholipids have two parts, namely the hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts. Section hydrophobic part consisting of fatty acids. While the hydrophilic part consisting of glycerol, phosphate, and additional groups such as choline, serine, and others. Naming phospholipids and the nature of each will depend on the type of group that is owned by the addition of phospholipids. Types of phospholipid constituent of cell membranes include: fosfokolin (pc), fosfoetanolamin (pe), fosfoserin (ps), and fosfoinositol (pi). Naturally in phospholipid micelles will form the structure (structure resembling a ball) or a two-layer lipid membrane. Due to the dynamic structure of phospholipids in the membrane components can perform the movement and position shift. The seriousness include lateral movement (movement of lipid molecules with their neighbors in the monolayer membrane) and movement as a flip flop (trans-bilayer movement type).
Integral Membrane Proteins
This protein is integrated in the lipid layer and penetrate two layers of lipid / transmembrane. Integral proteins have a domain extending outside the cells and in the cytoplasm. Are amphipathic, having helix protein sequences, hydrophobic, penetrating the lipid layer, and a hydrophilic amino acid strands. Many of them are glycoproteins, the sugar groups on the outside of the cell. In the synthesis in the ER, modified sugars in the Golgi apparatus.
framework Membrane
Membrane skeleton, also called the cytoskeleton has three types, namely microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments.
Membrane transport system
One of the functions of the cell membrane is as the traffic of molecules and ions in both directions. Molecules that can pass through cell membranes, among others, is hifrofobik molecules (CO2, O2), and a very small polar molecules (water, ethanol). Meanwhile, other molecules such as polar molecules with large size (glucose), ions and hydrophilic substances require special mechanisms to gain entry into the cell. The number of molecules in and out of the membrane led to the creation of membrane traffic. Membrane traffic is classified into two ways, namely by passive transport of molecules through the membrane without any mechanism capable of specific and active transport of molecules that require special mechanisms.
passive transport
Passive transport is the movement of molecules down a concentration gradient. This passive transport is spontan.Disfusi, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion an example of passive transport. Diffusion occurs due to the thermal motion of the increase of entropy or disorder resulting in a more random mix. Diffusion will continue during cellular respiration consumes O2 entry. Osmosis is the diffusion of solvent across the membrane selective direction of displacement is determined by the difference in total solute concentration (from hipotonis to hypertonic). Facilitated diffusion is still considered passive transport due to the switch according to solute concentration gradients. Examples of molecules that move by passive transport is water and glucose. Passive transport of water carried lipid bilayer and passive transport facilitated glucose transporter. Polar ions diffuse with the help of transport proteins.
active transport
Active transport is the opposite of passive transport and is not spontaneous. Direction of displacement of this transport against a concentration gradient. Active transport requires the help of some proteins. Examples of proteins that are involved in the active transport channel proteins and carrier proteins, as well as the ionophore. Which includes active transport is coupled carriers, ATP-driven pumps, and light-driven pumps. In using the coupled transport of carriers known two terms, namely simporter and antiporter. Simporter is a protein that transports the two substrates in the same direction, while the second substrate antiporter transfer in the opposite direction. ATP-driven pump is a transport cycle of the Na + / K + ATPase. Light-driven pump is commonly found in bacterial cells. This mechanism requires light energy and example occurs in Bakteriorhodopsin.
SYSTEM FUNCTION NEURAL
1. Central coordination of all activities of the body
2. The center of consciousness, memory, and intelligence
3. Center "HIGHER MENTAL PROCESSES" which consists of: Reasoning, THINKING & JUDGMENT
NEURAL CELL (NEURON)
1. Dendrites = short and branched helping
2. The nucleus = core chromosomal genes that mngandung
3. The cell membrane lipids or fats tdd
4. The cytoplasm àbening & clear
5. Mitochondria àmengolah food
6. The cell body (soma) à responsible ANSWER to life the cell
7. Axon = myelin sheath containing a long stretch and neurilema (Schwann sheat)
8. Axon Hillock = pd meeting conical shape axon and soma
9. Nodes of Ranvier à without myelin sheath
10. Terminal Buttons à bg end axons shaped buttons that function to release neuro transmitters (in the form of chemical substances)
The nervous system
1. The central nervous system (CNS): involving the brain and spinal cord (spinal cord)
2. The peripheral nervous system (SST): also involve the brain and spinal cord, just a different delivery
a. Afferent (sensory) à receptors to CNS
b. Efferent (motor) to the muscles and glands ASSP
A. Somatic skeletal muscle ake CNS
B. autonomic SSP à to smooth muscle and muscle
- Heart & glands
- Sympathetic
- parasympathetic
NEURAL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
A. UNDER THE TOTAL helping
1. unipolar
2. bipolar
3. multipolar
4. multipolar interneurons
B. BY FUNCTION
1. afferent (sensory)
2. The efferent (motor)
3. internuncial (intermediates)
BASED ON TOTAL helping
1. UNIPOLAR (pseudounipolar) axons and dendrites in the first line of the invertebrates
2. BIPOLAR axons and dendrites EXCLUDED BY BOARD OF CELL (SOMA) in the rod cells and cone cells of the human eye
3. MULTIPOLAR INVOLVING ONE axons with many dendrites (like the anatomy of nerve cells in general)
4. MULTIPOLAR interneurons in the BODY CELLS INVOLVING interneurons that many dendrites
BY FUNCTION
1. The conduction afferent impulses from receptors to the central nervous system
2. The delivery efferent impulses from the central nervous system to effectors (target organs)
3. intermediates impulse conduction between one neuron to other neurons in the central nervous system
4. Motor neurons neurons that ended aksonnya pd skeletal muscle
5. Secretory neurons neurons that ended aksonnya endocrine and exocrine pd
6. Asselerasi neurons neurons that ended aksonya pd cardiac muscle and smooth muscle of the gastrointestinal tract increased heart rate (sympathetic), increased movement / work smooth muscle (parasympathetic)
7. The same inhibitory neurons with neurons asselerasi reduction in heart rate (parasympathetic) and reduction of movement / work smooth muscle, gastrointestinal tract (sympathetic)
The function of the myelin membrane
- As an insulator
- Protecting axons of pressure and wound
- Provide nutrition (food) in the axon
- Accelerate the course of the nerve impulse adengan jumping (saltatorik)
- Without myelin walk à usual impulse conductionSYNAPSIS
Point of contact between the neurons with which one neuron to another. Generally there allows for the delivery of neurotransmitters in neurons impulse to the next. There celahsynaptic vesicles that magnitude lbh aprox 200 Ao
- 1 Ao = 10 -10
Various Synapsis
1. Synapsis axosomatik à point of contact between the axon of one neuron with a soma (cell body) other neurons
2. Synapsis axondendritik à point of contact between the axon of one neuron to the dendrites of other neurons
3. Synapsis axoaxonik à point of contact between the axon of one neuron to another neuron axons = axoneuritik
Synapsis characteristics A
- Walk in one direction from the dendrites to the soma à à from soma to axon to the neuron
- The deceleration (delay) because the compound lepaskannya nerve terminal to the next neuron
- Highly sensitive to fatigue (fatigue)
- Hypersensitivity to the drug-à 2an could increase and could also reduce
Neural Tracks
- In the brain:
1. Association: impulse conduction from one point to the other pd same hemispheres (can travel back and forth)
2. Projection: impulse delivery of a single point anywhere in the cerebral hemispheres to the spinal cord (not vice versa)
3. comisura: conduction of impulses from one point to the other pd different hemispheres
- In the spinal cord
- Ascendens: conduction of impulses to the brain which
- Descendens: conduction of impulses that leave the brain
CELLS SUPPORT SYSTEM NEURAL CENTRE
- Glia & SATELLITE CELLS
- Glial Cells (neuroglia) à = nerve glue adhesive that has the function of nerve:
1. Put the CNS (CENTRAL NERVE SYSTEM) into an integral part
2. Controlling inventory of chemical substances necessary neurons to communicate with other neurons.
3. Protecting neurons from the effects of one another so that the message does not mix
4. Abolish and releasing neurons that die as a result of an accident or the aging process
Various kinds of glial cells
- Astrocyte = astroglia = cell à star has a function to give physical support to neurons (glial adhesiveness reinforce the neurons); cleaning substances that are not useful in the brain because of its nature fagositosit; regulate chemical liquefaction around neurons; protect synapsis.
- À Oligodendroglia has the function of supporting the axons and produce myelin fibers as a protective membrane of axons
- Satellite cells takes place in the CNS (PNS = PERIPHERAL NERVE SYSTEM)
- The function of satellite cells à member support to neurons outside the CNS (CENTRAL NERVE SYSTEM), especially disyaraf (a collection of axons in the PNS) and the sensing organs
- That is like oligodendroglia in the PNS (PERIPHERAL NERVE SYSTEM) à Schwann cell
- Schwann cells differ from oligodendroglia in the development of new cells in the event of damage to the nervous edge, these cells help the development of dead and damaged axons
Polarization, depolarization and repolarization
Polarization is a neurological condition in a state of rest means the outer surface is positively charged, negatively charged inside, when one part is stimulated depolarization will occur where the difference in charge so that the outside is positively charged and negatively charged charge in the negative to positive. If outside or in charge of any difference will cause an electric current or local currents that would cause depolarization impulse propagation entirely up to run smoothly. Repolarization after propagation will be back and will experience a break back.
NEURAL cranial and spinal NEURAL
a. There are 12 pairs of cranial nerve, except the class Amphibia class Pisces and there are only 10 pairs
b. Writing with numbers romawià cranial nerve I s / d XII
c. Spinal nerve exit from each of two between the two bones of the vertebrae
d. Writing spinal nerve with ordinary roman numeral
NEURAL cranial
a. I àOlfaktori for olfactory
b. II àOptik for vision
c. III àOkulumotor for eyeball movement, pupil and lens controls and control the tears
d. IV àTroklear for eyeball movement (movement left and right, up and down) and rotating
e. V àTrigeminal for sensation in the face and upper jaw mengunyahsekitar, around the lower jaw and around the eye area (opthalmic)
f. VI àAbducens for movement of the eyeball, especially to see distant objects
g. VII àFasialis for facial muscles, facial expression, salivary glands and taste (tongue)
h. Auditory VIII for hearing & keseimbangancabang acoustic, auditory and vestibular branches of balance
i. IX Glossopharyngeal = glossus = tongue; = pharyngeal muscles of the esophagus to the throat, salivary glands and taste (tongue)
j. X à Vagus for parasympathetic control of the internal organs-2; sensations of internal organs as well as the taste (tongue); as well as controlling the work of other cranial nerves
k. XI Aspinall accessories for head and neck muscles
l. À XII hypoglossal (hypo = below; glossus = tongue) to the muscles of the tongue and neck
Neck vertebrae (cervical, 7 segment); vertebrae chest / back (thorakalis = sternal, 12 segments); lumbar vertebrae (lumbar segment 5); pelvic (sacral, 4 segments united = fusion); tail (kaudalis = coccygi, 3 segments united (fusion). In addition mempersyarafi according to the name-2nya, spinal nerves also mempersyarafi other parts.
- Head = kaputalis = cranial; = orbital eye; upper eyelid superis = eyelid; lower eyelid palpebral = inferis; nose = nasal; maxilla = maxillary; mandible = mandibular; forehead = frontal; cheek = zigomatis; otis = ear
- Shoulder = pectoralis; shoulder = scapular
- Arm overall = humeralis; consist of: up = brachial arm; Forearm = antebrakhialis; consist of: pertinent thumb = radial; pertinent pinkie = ulnalis; palms = palmatis = karpalis;
- Finger-2 = digitalis; consist of: thumb = polluksis; toe = halluksis; while the other two fingers no different, namely: index = sekundalis; middle = medial; sweet = annulis; pinkie = minimalist
- Backs = dorsal; stomach = ventralis = abdominal; = the lateral side of the body
- Thigh = femoral; dry tlg = tibial; calf = fibulalis; foot = tarsalis; kneecap = patelis = patelalis
- Diaphragm = phrenikus
- Erection of the penis and clitoris pd female = erigenus
When the brain is divided into two so-called longitudinal section so that we have a left brain (the left) and right (dekstra). When the brain is divided vertically so-called cross-section so that we have the front (anterior = cranial) and BGN back (posterior = caudal). When the brain is divided horizontally called longitudinal section so that we have the upper (superior) and bottom (inferior).
The parts of the brain
- FRONTAL lobes: the area of the body motion controller, the damage this part will cause interference to a special motion of the fingers.
- PARIETAL lobes: provide sensory information from the skin.
Physiological relations
Physiological relationship with the environment as well as human behavior is the division of behavioral neuroscience (biological psychology that studies the neural mechanisms of perception and behavior through direct manipulation of non-human animal brains of subjects in controlled experiments. In contrast to other subdivisions in biological psychology, physiological primary focus is the development of the theory of psychological research -teori which describes the relationship of brain behavior than the development of translational research that has value. Sometimes called the psikofiosiologi, and in recent years the so-called cognitive neuroscience. one example of physiological psychology research is the study of the role of the hippocampus in learning and memory. It this can be achieved by surgical removal of the hippocampus of the mouse brain, followed by assessment of memory tasks by the same rats.
sensing
ENDOCRINE
The endocrine system is a control system without duct glands (ductless) which produces hormones that circulate in the body via the bloodstream to affect other organs. Hormones act as "messengers" and carried by the bloodstream to different cells in the body, which in turn will translate the "message" has become an act. The endocrine system does not include exocrine glands such as salivary glands, sweat glands, and other glands in the channel gastroinstestin.
- Network secretory
Network secretory glands also called internal because the resulting compound is not out of the body. Network is divided into cell secretory glands, ducts of glands, and lymph channels. Gland cell contains a variety of metabolic compounds. Gland duct is a thin-walled cells with condensed protoplasm surrounding a segment containing compounds produced by these cells. Lymph channels composed of cells or series of cells undergoing fusion, contains latex, and form a network system that permeates other tissues.
a. pituitary
This gland is located at the base of a large brain and produce a variety of hormones that regulate the activity of other glands. Therefore, the pituitary gland called the master gland. The pituitary gland is divided into three parts, namely the anterior, middle, and posterior parts.
1. The anterior pituitary section. A hormone produced by the anterior portion of the pituitary gland.
2. Pituitary middle. Produce melanocyte stimulating hormone, or MSH Melanocytes Stimulating Hormone). When these hormones are produced that cause the skin to become black.
3. the posterior pituitary.
b. Thyroid / Thyroid Gland
The thyroid is a gland in the form of twin lobe and between the two regions can come to a head. These glands are located under the Adam's apple in front of the trachea. The thyroid gland produces thyroxine hormone that affects the metabolism of body cells and body temperature regulation.
Thyroxine contains a lot of iodine. Lack of iodine in the diet resulted in a long time due to enlargement of the thyroid gland should be working hard to form thyroxine. Lack of thyroxine lowers metabolic rate so slow growth and decreased intelligence. When this occurs in children result in cretinism, namely physical and mental disorders that cause severe stunting children and idiots. Mild iodine deficiency still can be improved by adding iodized salt in food.
Excessive production of thyroxine cause eksoftalmik thyroid disease (Morbus Basedowi) with the following symptoms; increased metabolic rate, increased pulse rate, restlessness, nervousness, and feeling feverish. Other symptoms are visible protruding eyeballs (Exophthalmos) and enlarged thyroid gland.
c. Parathyroid / Thyroid gland Children
Parathyroid glands attached to the thyroid. These glands produce parathormone which controls the levels of phosphorus and calcium in the blood. Deficiency of this hormone causes tetany with symptoms: decreased levels of calcium in the blood, cramps in the hands and feet, fingers bend toward the base, anxiety, difficulty sleeping, and tingling.
Parathyroid tumor causing too much parathormone levels in the blood. This resulted in the drawing of phosphorus and calcium in the bones, so that urine contains a lot of calcium and phosphorus. In people who develop this disease easily broken bones. This disease is called von Recklinghousen.
d. Adrenal gland / suprarenal / Kidney Kids
These glands are spherical, attached to the upper part of the kidney. In each kidney is a suprarenal glands and is divided into two parts, the outer part (the cortex) and the central portion (medulla). Damage to the cortex resulting in disease symptoms Addisondengan as follows: arises fatigue, decreased appetite, nausea, vomiting, sore in the body. In a state of fear or in a state of danger, adrenaline production increases so that increases the heart rate and more blood pumping. Another symptom is the widening of the bronchial tract, widening of the pupils, eyelids wide open, and followed by the hair stand up.
e. pancreas
There are several groups of cells in the pancreas known as the islets of Langerhans functions as an endocrine gland that produces the hormone insulin. This hormone controls the concentration of glucose in the blood. Excess glucose will be taken to the liver cells and then be converted into glycogen for storage. Deficiency of this hormone will cause diabetes. In addition to produce insulin, the pancreas also produces the hormone glucagon antagonist that works with the hormone insulin.
f. ovary
The ovaries are the female reproductive organs. In addition to producing eggs, the ovaries also produce hormones. There are two kinds of hormones produced by the ovaries is as follows.
1. Estrogen. This hormone is produced by Graaf follicles. Estrogen formation is stimulated by FSH. The function of estrogen is to induce and maintain secondary sex signs in women. Signs of secondary sex characteristics that can distinguish women with Aria regardless of gender. For example, the development of hips and breasts in women and the skin becomes more delicate.
2. Progesterone. This hormone is produced by the corpus luteum. Its formation is stimulated by LH and serves to prepare the uterine lining to receive a fertilized egg. The placenta forms of estrogen and progesterone during pregnancy in order to prevent the formation of FSH and LH. Thus, both of these hormones to maintain the pregnancy.
e. Testis
As well as the ovaries, testes are specialized in the male reproductive organs. In addition to producing sperm, testicular function as endocrine glands that produce hormones androgens, namely testosterone. Testosterone function raises and maintains continuity signs of secondary sex. For example, the sound bigger, has a mustache, and Adam's apple.
f. hormone
Hormones (from Greek, όρμή: hormones - "the move") is a chemical messenger between cells or between groups of cells. All multicellular organisms, including plants (see plant hormone article), producing hormones. The hormone serves to give a signal to the target cells, which then undertook an action or specific activities.
Actions taken due to hormonal messages vary widely, including among them is the stimulation or inhibition of growth and apoptosis (programmed cell death), activation or deactivation of the immune system, metabolic regulation and preparation of new activities (eg flying, mating, and child care), or phase life (eg, puberty and menopause). In many cases, one hormone may regulate the production and release of other hormones. Hormones also regulate the reproductive cycle in almost all multicellular organisms.
In principle, the regulation of production of hormones made by the hypothalamus (a part of the brain). The hypothalamus controls the secretion of many other glands, mainly through the pituitary gland, which also controls other glands. Hypothalamus instructs the pituitary gland to secrete hormones by sending untu regulatory factors to anterior lobe and posterior to send nerve impulses and send nerve impulses to the posterior lobe.
· Regulatory Factors
Regulatory factor is the chemical that controls the production of a hormone that has an important function for the body. This compound is delivered to the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland by the hypothalamus. There are two regulatory factors, namely releasing factor (releasing factor) which causes the pituitary gland to secrete certain hormones and inhibiting factors (inhibiting factors) which can stop the secretion of these hormones. An example is FSHRF (FSH-releasing factor) and LHRF (LH-releasing factor) that causes the release of hormones FSH and LH.
· Hormones antagonistic
Antagonistic hormone is a hormone that causes the opposite effect, for example, glucagon and insulin. When blood sugar levels are very down, the pancreas will produce glucagon to raise it again. High glucose levels cause the pancreas to produce insulin to lower the glucose levels.
Psychology as part of physiology emerged in the 19th century along with advances in the natural sciences (natural science). In this phase of human thought continues to grow and many human physiological exploration empirically. Scientific context of the 19th century:
- Empirical research done in the field of physiological include: nerve activity, sensation / sensing, and physiological brain. The results of research in these three areas are very significant opening insights into humans so scientists reinforces the view that time the importance of systematic empirical strategy in any field of science.
- For the psychology of these results gave way to establish the physiological basis for mental operations. It is important to understand logically and empirically the mental activity itself
- Describe the position of modern psychology that is close to the field of medicine and psychiatry.
Francis Bacon (1561-1626), advocated the inductive method as the primary method in science because it departs from the observation of the real thing. In doing so he challenged the opinion of Aristotle and the Scholastic that deductive methods - inductive as strong. In such a context in ataslah said that Bacon 'disagree' with the speculative rationalism, although the idea itself is also very rational. By returning to the real facts, Bacon hopes science can be free from speculative principles but has a very strong hold. There are 3 major advance in the field of science that affect the establishment of psychology as an independent science disciplines and how your progress was in the 20th century:
1. Physiological: advances in the field of physiological, covering research in the areas of neural activity, sensation, and brains to give an empirical basis for the functions that were previously considered to be a function of the soul (psyche), which was also previously considered to be very abstract.
Important figures:
- Francoise Charles Bell-Magendie: the fact that the sensory and motor nerves to operate separately and direction. Scrape the assumption that human neural mencover both, communicating information to the motor nerves through the 'vibe' is derived from sensory information.
- Johannes Mueller: more emphasis on the process of nerve transmission. Doctrine of Specific Nerve Energies: nerve transmission is the process that bridges between the sensed object with the mind. So human awareness, is not solely caused by a particular object, nor is it due to the soul, but is mediated by the neurotransmitter. This view complements the explanation of the role of the mind and consciousness TTG (cogito ergo sum) and became the basis for research on the specific location of a particular function in the brain.
- Marshall Hall: reflex commandeered by the spinal cord (spinal cord) and not the nerves of the brain stem. Differentiating body movements into 4 groups: voluntary movement, respiratory movement, involuntary movement, and reflexes. His views sparked discussion on a very relevant awareness to the development of psychology.
- Paul Broca (1824 - 1880), found that Broca center controlling the activity of speech. He is an important figure in the study of physiological brain. This study evolved from phrenology (Gall & Spurzheim), the only approach that focuses on the brain time. The main focus of the exploration is to find a physiological brain physiological location of the mental parts, certain parts of the brain that is central of human mental activities.
- Pierre Flourens (1794-1867), tried to approach the non-pathological evidence of (complementary Broca), find the important centers of the brain, namely:
a. Cerebral hemispheres: willing, judging, memory, seeing, and hearing
b. Cerebellum: motor coordination
c. Medulla oblongata: mediation of the sensory and the motor function
d. Corpora quadrigemina: vision
e. Spinal cord: conduction
f. Nerves: excitation
Experts are busy counting physiological study of sensation, trying to decipher the anatomy of sensory receptors and analyzing the psychological experience produced by physiological processes. Leaders: Thomas Young (1773-1829): trichromatic theory Jan Purkinje (1787-1869): a systematic relationship between the structure of the eye and the nerve to the brain to explain perceptual error.
2. psychophysiological: psychophysics, is part of a discipline that focuses on the physiology of subjective experience in studying the relationship between physical stimuli and the sensations. Sensation perceived by human senses is seen as a reflection of the soul-body relationship and not solely be explained in terms of anatomy or physical. Psychophysics is a crucial transitional stage between the initial appearance of the field of physiological psychology as a discipline. Therefore psychophysics figures can be regarded as the founders of psychology.
Important figures:
- Gustav Fechner: the relationship between sensation and perception, psychophysical considered as an inexact science to explain the relationship between body and mind. He did not agree with materialism, that the mind must always be embodied in a tangible form can only be observed, otherwise he adhered to the tradition of German thought which diangagp mind as something that is active and has a structure independently. He proposed the empirical sciences of the mind in which the increased bodily and sensory stimulations regarded as an indicator or measurement of the intensity of mental experience. Main concepts: threshold or threshold. (absolute threshold, just noticeable threshold).
- Hermann von Helmholtz (1821-1894)
A pioneer of experimental psychology, many using reaction time in his research, is something that is still widely used in experimental psi until now. The concept: unconscious inference: inference results obtained based on human perception repeatable process that eventually becomes something that is not realized, 'irresisitible', once formed is difficult to consciously modified and generalized to similar stimuli in the environment. Another important concept: unbewusster schluss
The psychophysics figure shows the study area that are not easily accommodated in the physical sciences, physiological, or philosophy. This is a growing area of study into the object of study of psychology.
3. Evolution: Evolution, proposed by Charles Darwin (1809-1882) is a critical point in the thinking of the man as put forward the idea that human beings are part of the adaptation of living beings to nature, humans are not specially created and thus the difference with creatures others only gradual, not quality. This view is important and relevant to the development of psychology, in particular to provide an idea of the individual difference, the difference between individuals is also its only gradual, not quality.
Key people:
- Francis Galton (1822 - 1911): known as the father of British experimental psychology. Featuring practical and usability aspects of Darwin's theory of evolution, Darwin's theory of context transfer in the context of biological improvements in the community.
UNDERSTANDING PSYCHOLOGY PSYCHOLOGY FROM physiology & Physiology
- Psychology is the study of human behavior (BIGOT et al., 1950)
- Physiology is the study of the functions and activities of the tools of the human body
- Psychology of physiology is the study of the behavior / human behavior in relation to the functions and activities of organs.
Included in the coordinated devices are:
- The composition of the central nervous system
- Composition of the peripheral nervous system (periheral)
- Tools senses: vision / eye, hearing / ear, smell / nose, the taster / tongue, touch / skin
- Tools endocrine (hormone) glands that produce that can secrete hormones.
BRAIN
The brain is amazing that there are 100 billion nerve cells (neurons) are active, stick to the 900 billion neurons, the cells of nutrients and isolate the active neurons. Each neuron can grow 20,000 branches left and right brain.
- = LEFT BRAIN BRAIN BRAIN INSTINCT ACADEMIC = = = TATA LANGUAGE LEFT BRAIN, LOGIC, MEMORY, FIGURES, SCRIPTURES, ANALYSIS, RATIONAL, REALIZATION
- BRAIN RIGHT BRAIN CREATIVITY = = = EMOTIONAL BRAIN RIGHT BRAIN = RHYTHM, daydreams, IMAGINATION, Fantasies. MUSIC, COLOR, DIMENSIONS
BRAIN DEVELOPMENT (another name)
- Forebrain (forebrain) consists of:
- Telencephalon (endbrain) &
- Diencephalon (interbrain)
- Midbrain (midbrain) mesencephalon
- Hindbrain (hindbrain) consists of
- METENCEPHALON (afterbrain) &
- MYELENCEPHALON (marrowbrain)
GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT OF PHYSICAL BRAIN
- BIRTH: 25% of adult size (+ 350 grams) 87.5 grams
- 18 months (1.5 years): 50% of the adult size of 175 grams
- 72 months (6 years): 90% of the adult size of 315 grams
- 216 months (18 years): 100% adult size
BRAIN DEVELOPMENT (encephalon) IN embryonic
1. PROSENCEPHALON (forebrain) consists of: telencephalon (olfactory center) and diencephalon (hearing and balance center)
2. mesencephalon (midbrain) PERMANENT eyesight Center
3. RHOMBENCEPHALON (hindbrain) consists of: METENCEPHALON Center (motion) & MYELENCEPHALON (Center respiration = respiration Center)
INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT (INTELLIGENCE) AMERICAN & EUROPEAN VERSION OF THE BRAIN AND INDONESIAN VERSION
AMERICAN & EUROPEAN VERSION è 4 YEAR OF BIRTH: 50% POTENTIAL FOR ADULTS
è 4 YR YR 8: 80% POTENTIAL FOR ADULTS
è 8 YR 18 YR: 100%
è POTENTIAL OF ADULT VERSION INDONESIA 6 MONTH OF BIRTH: 50% POTENTIAL FOR ADULTS
è 6 MONTH 3 YEAR: 80% POTENTIAL FOR ADULTS
è 18 YR 3 YR: 100% POTENTIAL FOR ADULTS
Membrane structure
The structure of the cell membrane is a fluid mosaic models proposed by Singer and Nicholson in 1972. On the theory of fluid mosaic membrane is two layers of fat in the form of fluid lipid molecules can move laterally along the membrane layer. Membrane proteins arranged in irregular penetrate the fat layer. So we can say the cell membrane as a dynamic structure where the components are free to move and can be tied together in a variety of forms of interaction semipermanent constituent component of cell membranes include phospholipids, proteins, oligosaccharides, glikolidpid, and cholesterol. Muchus component of cell membranes in the lining membrane semipermanent
Two Layer Lipids
The main component of the cell membrane composed of phospholipids, other than that there are compounds such sfingomyelin lipid, cholesterol, and glikolipida. Phospholipids have two parts, namely the hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts. Section hydrophobic part consisting of fatty acids. While the hydrophilic part consisting of glycerol, phosphate, and additional groups such as choline, serine, and others. Naming phospholipids and the nature of each will depend on the type of group that is owned by the addition of phospholipids. Types of phospholipid constituent of cell membranes include: fosfokolin (pc), fosfoetanolamin (pe), fosfoserin (ps), and fosfoinositol (pi). Naturally in phospholipid micelles will form the structure (structure resembling a ball) or a two-layer lipid membrane. Due to the dynamic structure of phospholipids in the membrane components can perform the movement and position shift. The seriousness include lateral movement (movement of lipid molecules with their neighbors in the monolayer membrane) and movement as a flip flop (trans-bilayer movement type).
Integral Membrane Proteins
This protein is integrated in the lipid layer and penetrate two layers of lipid / transmembrane. Integral proteins have a domain extending outside the cells and in the cytoplasm. Are amphipathic, having helix protein sequences, hydrophobic, penetrating the lipid layer, and a hydrophilic amino acid strands. Many of them are glycoproteins, the sugar groups on the outside of the cell. In the synthesis in the ER, modified sugars in the Golgi apparatus.
framework Membrane
Membrane skeleton, also called the cytoskeleton has three types, namely microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments.
Membrane transport system
One of the functions of the cell membrane is as the traffic of molecules and ions in both directions. Molecules that can pass through cell membranes, among others, is hifrofobik molecules (CO2, O2), and a very small polar molecules (water, ethanol). Meanwhile, other molecules such as polar molecules with large size (glucose), ions and hydrophilic substances require special mechanisms to gain entry into the cell. The number of molecules in and out of the membrane led to the creation of membrane traffic. Membrane traffic is classified into two ways, namely by passive transport of molecules through the membrane without any mechanism capable of specific and active transport of molecules that require special mechanisms.
passive transport
Passive transport is the movement of molecules down a concentration gradient. This passive transport is spontan.Disfusi, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion an example of passive transport. Diffusion occurs due to the thermal motion of the increase of entropy or disorder resulting in a more random mix. Diffusion will continue during cellular respiration consumes O2 entry. Osmosis is the diffusion of solvent across the membrane selective direction of displacement is determined by the difference in total solute concentration (from hipotonis to hypertonic). Facilitated diffusion is still considered passive transport due to the switch according to solute concentration gradients. Examples of molecules that move by passive transport is water and glucose. Passive transport of water carried lipid bilayer and passive transport facilitated glucose transporter. Polar ions diffuse with the help of transport proteins.
active transport
Active transport is the opposite of passive transport and is not spontaneous. Direction of displacement of this transport against a concentration gradient. Active transport requires the help of some proteins. Examples of proteins that are involved in the active transport channel proteins and carrier proteins, as well as the ionophore. Which includes active transport is coupled carriers, ATP-driven pumps, and light-driven pumps. In using the coupled transport of carriers known two terms, namely simporter and antiporter. Simporter is a protein that transports the two substrates in the same direction, while the second substrate antiporter transfer in the opposite direction. ATP-driven pump is a transport cycle of the Na + / K + ATPase. Light-driven pump is commonly found in bacterial cells. This mechanism requires light energy and example occurs in Bakteriorhodopsin.
SYSTEM FUNCTION NEURAL
1. Central coordination of all activities of the body
2. The center of consciousness, memory, and intelligence
3. Center "HIGHER MENTAL PROCESSES" which consists of: Reasoning, THINKING & JUDGMENT
NEURAL CELL (NEURON)
1. Dendrites = short and branched helping
2. The nucleus = core chromosomal genes that mngandung
3. The cell membrane lipids or fats tdd
4. The cytoplasm àbening & clear
5. Mitochondria àmengolah food
6. The cell body (soma) à responsible ANSWER to life the cell
7. Axon = myelin sheath containing a long stretch and neurilema (Schwann sheat)
8. Axon Hillock = pd meeting conical shape axon and soma
9. Nodes of Ranvier à without myelin sheath
10. Terminal Buttons à bg end axons shaped buttons that function to release neuro transmitters (in the form of chemical substances)
The nervous system
1. The central nervous system (CNS): involving the brain and spinal cord (spinal cord)
2. The peripheral nervous system (SST): also involve the brain and spinal cord, just a different delivery
a. Afferent (sensory) à receptors to CNS
b. Efferent (motor) to the muscles and glands ASSP
A. Somatic skeletal muscle ake CNS
B. autonomic SSP à to smooth muscle and muscle
- Heart & glands
- Sympathetic
- parasympathetic
NEURAL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
A. UNDER THE TOTAL helping
1. unipolar
2. bipolar
3. multipolar
4. multipolar interneurons
B. BY FUNCTION
1. afferent (sensory)
2. The efferent (motor)
3. internuncial (intermediates)
BASED ON TOTAL helping
1. UNIPOLAR (pseudounipolar) axons and dendrites in the first line of the invertebrates
2. BIPOLAR axons and dendrites EXCLUDED BY BOARD OF CELL (SOMA) in the rod cells and cone cells of the human eye
3. MULTIPOLAR INVOLVING ONE axons with many dendrites (like the anatomy of nerve cells in general)
4. MULTIPOLAR interneurons in the BODY CELLS INVOLVING interneurons that many dendrites
BY FUNCTION
1. The conduction afferent impulses from receptors to the central nervous system
2. The delivery efferent impulses from the central nervous system to effectors (target organs)
3. intermediates impulse conduction between one neuron to other neurons in the central nervous system
4. Motor neurons neurons that ended aksonnya pd skeletal muscle
5. Secretory neurons neurons that ended aksonnya endocrine and exocrine pd
6. Asselerasi neurons neurons that ended aksonya pd cardiac muscle and smooth muscle of the gastrointestinal tract increased heart rate (sympathetic), increased movement / work smooth muscle (parasympathetic)
7. The same inhibitory neurons with neurons asselerasi reduction in heart rate (parasympathetic) and reduction of movement / work smooth muscle, gastrointestinal tract (sympathetic)
The function of the myelin membrane
- As an insulator
- Protecting axons of pressure and wound
- Provide nutrition (food) in the axon
- Accelerate the course of the nerve impulse adengan jumping (saltatorik)
- Without myelin walk à usual impulse conductionSYNAPSIS
Point of contact between the neurons with which one neuron to another. Generally there allows for the delivery of neurotransmitters in neurons impulse to the next. There celahsynaptic vesicles that magnitude lbh aprox 200 Ao
- 1 Ao = 10 -10
Various Synapsis
1. Synapsis axosomatik à point of contact between the axon of one neuron with a soma (cell body) other neurons
2. Synapsis axondendritik à point of contact between the axon of one neuron to the dendrites of other neurons
3. Synapsis axoaxonik à point of contact between the axon of one neuron to another neuron axons = axoneuritik
Synapsis characteristics A
- Walk in one direction from the dendrites to the soma à à from soma to axon to the neuron
- The deceleration (delay) because the compound lepaskannya nerve terminal to the next neuron
- Highly sensitive to fatigue (fatigue)
- Hypersensitivity to the drug-à 2an could increase and could also reduce
Neural Tracks
- In the brain:
1. Association: impulse conduction from one point to the other pd same hemispheres (can travel back and forth)
2. Projection: impulse delivery of a single point anywhere in the cerebral hemispheres to the spinal cord (not vice versa)
3. comisura: conduction of impulses from one point to the other pd different hemispheres
- In the spinal cord
- Ascendens: conduction of impulses to the brain which
- Descendens: conduction of impulses that leave the brain
CELLS SUPPORT SYSTEM NEURAL CENTRE
- Glia & SATELLITE CELLS
- Glial Cells (neuroglia) à = nerve glue adhesive that has the function of nerve:
1. Put the CNS (CENTRAL NERVE SYSTEM) into an integral part
2. Controlling inventory of chemical substances necessary neurons to communicate with other neurons.
3. Protecting neurons from the effects of one another so that the message does not mix
4. Abolish and releasing neurons that die as a result of an accident or the aging process
Various kinds of glial cells
- Astrocyte = astroglia = cell à star has a function to give physical support to neurons (glial adhesiveness reinforce the neurons); cleaning substances that are not useful in the brain because of its nature fagositosit; regulate chemical liquefaction around neurons; protect synapsis.
- À Oligodendroglia has the function of supporting the axons and produce myelin fibers as a protective membrane of axons
- Satellite cells takes place in the CNS (PNS = PERIPHERAL NERVE SYSTEM)
- The function of satellite cells à member support to neurons outside the CNS (CENTRAL NERVE SYSTEM), especially disyaraf (a collection of axons in the PNS) and the sensing organs
- That is like oligodendroglia in the PNS (PERIPHERAL NERVE SYSTEM) à Schwann cell
- Schwann cells differ from oligodendroglia in the development of new cells in the event of damage to the nervous edge, these cells help the development of dead and damaged axons
Polarization, depolarization and repolarization
Polarization is a neurological condition in a state of rest means the outer surface is positively charged, negatively charged inside, when one part is stimulated depolarization will occur where the difference in charge so that the outside is positively charged and negatively charged charge in the negative to positive. If outside or in charge of any difference will cause an electric current or local currents that would cause depolarization impulse propagation entirely up to run smoothly. Repolarization after propagation will be back and will experience a break back.
NEURAL cranial and spinal NEURAL
a. There are 12 pairs of cranial nerve, except the class Amphibia class Pisces and there are only 10 pairs
b. Writing with numbers romawià cranial nerve I s / d XII
c. Spinal nerve exit from each of two between the two bones of the vertebrae
d. Writing spinal nerve with ordinary roman numeral
NEURAL cranial
a. I àOlfaktori for olfactory
b. II àOptik for vision
c. III àOkulumotor for eyeball movement, pupil and lens controls and control the tears
d. IV àTroklear for eyeball movement (movement left and right, up and down) and rotating
e. V àTrigeminal for sensation in the face and upper jaw mengunyahsekitar, around the lower jaw and around the eye area (opthalmic)
f. VI àAbducens for movement of the eyeball, especially to see distant objects
g. VII àFasialis for facial muscles, facial expression, salivary glands and taste (tongue)
h. Auditory VIII for hearing & keseimbangancabang acoustic, auditory and vestibular branches of balance
i. IX Glossopharyngeal = glossus = tongue; = pharyngeal muscles of the esophagus to the throat, salivary glands and taste (tongue)
j. X à Vagus for parasympathetic control of the internal organs-2; sensations of internal organs as well as the taste (tongue); as well as controlling the work of other cranial nerves
k. XI Aspinall accessories for head and neck muscles
l. À XII hypoglossal (hypo = below; glossus = tongue) to the muscles of the tongue and neck
Neck vertebrae (cervical, 7 segment); vertebrae chest / back (thorakalis = sternal, 12 segments); lumbar vertebrae (lumbar segment 5); pelvic (sacral, 4 segments united = fusion); tail (kaudalis = coccygi, 3 segments united (fusion). In addition mempersyarafi according to the name-2nya, spinal nerves also mempersyarafi other parts.
- Head = kaputalis = cranial; = orbital eye; upper eyelid superis = eyelid; lower eyelid palpebral = inferis; nose = nasal; maxilla = maxillary; mandible = mandibular; forehead = frontal; cheek = zigomatis; otis = ear
- Shoulder = pectoralis; shoulder = scapular
- Arm overall = humeralis; consist of: up = brachial arm; Forearm = antebrakhialis; consist of: pertinent thumb = radial; pertinent pinkie = ulnalis; palms = palmatis = karpalis;
- Finger-2 = digitalis; consist of: thumb = polluksis; toe = halluksis; while the other two fingers no different, namely: index = sekundalis; middle = medial; sweet = annulis; pinkie = minimalist
- Backs = dorsal; stomach = ventralis = abdominal; = the lateral side of the body
- Thigh = femoral; dry tlg = tibial; calf = fibulalis; foot = tarsalis; kneecap = patelis = patelalis
- Diaphragm = phrenikus
- Erection of the penis and clitoris pd female = erigenus
When the brain is divided into two so-called longitudinal section so that we have a left brain (the left) and right (dekstra). When the brain is divided vertically so-called cross-section so that we have the front (anterior = cranial) and BGN back (posterior = caudal). When the brain is divided horizontally called longitudinal section so that we have the upper (superior) and bottom (inferior).
The parts of the brain
- FRONTAL lobes: the area of the body motion controller, the damage this part will cause interference to a special motion of the fingers.
- PARIETAL lobes: provide sensory information from the skin.
Physiological relations
Physiological relationship with the environment as well as human behavior is the division of behavioral neuroscience (biological psychology that studies the neural mechanisms of perception and behavior through direct manipulation of non-human animal brains of subjects in controlled experiments. In contrast to other subdivisions in biological psychology, physiological primary focus is the development of the theory of psychological research -teori which describes the relationship of brain behavior than the development of translational research that has value. Sometimes called the psikofiosiologi, and in recent years the so-called cognitive neuroscience. one example of physiological psychology research is the study of the role of the hippocampus in learning and memory. It this can be achieved by surgical removal of the hippocampus of the mouse brain, followed by assessment of memory tasks by the same rats.
sensing
ENDOCRINE
The endocrine system is a control system without duct glands (ductless) which produces hormones that circulate in the body via the bloodstream to affect other organs. Hormones act as "messengers" and carried by the bloodstream to different cells in the body, which in turn will translate the "message" has become an act. The endocrine system does not include exocrine glands such as salivary glands, sweat glands, and other glands in the channel gastroinstestin.
- Network secretory
Network secretory glands also called internal because the resulting compound is not out of the body. Network is divided into cell secretory glands, ducts of glands, and lymph channels. Gland cell contains a variety of metabolic compounds. Gland duct is a thin-walled cells with condensed protoplasm surrounding a segment containing compounds produced by these cells. Lymph channels composed of cells or series of cells undergoing fusion, contains latex, and form a network system that permeates other tissues.
a. pituitary
This gland is located at the base of a large brain and produce a variety of hormones that regulate the activity of other glands. Therefore, the pituitary gland called the master gland. The pituitary gland is divided into three parts, namely the anterior, middle, and posterior parts.
1. The anterior pituitary section. A hormone produced by the anterior portion of the pituitary gland.
2. Pituitary middle. Produce melanocyte stimulating hormone, or MSH Melanocytes Stimulating Hormone). When these hormones are produced that cause the skin to become black.
3. the posterior pituitary.
b. Thyroid / Thyroid Gland
The thyroid is a gland in the form of twin lobe and between the two regions can come to a head. These glands are located under the Adam's apple in front of the trachea. The thyroid gland produces thyroxine hormone that affects the metabolism of body cells and body temperature regulation.
Thyroxine contains a lot of iodine. Lack of iodine in the diet resulted in a long time due to enlargement of the thyroid gland should be working hard to form thyroxine. Lack of thyroxine lowers metabolic rate so slow growth and decreased intelligence. When this occurs in children result in cretinism, namely physical and mental disorders that cause severe stunting children and idiots. Mild iodine deficiency still can be improved by adding iodized salt in food.
Excessive production of thyroxine cause eksoftalmik thyroid disease (Morbus Basedowi) with the following symptoms; increased metabolic rate, increased pulse rate, restlessness, nervousness, and feeling feverish. Other symptoms are visible protruding eyeballs (Exophthalmos) and enlarged thyroid gland.
c. Parathyroid / Thyroid gland Children
Parathyroid glands attached to the thyroid. These glands produce parathormone which controls the levels of phosphorus and calcium in the blood. Deficiency of this hormone causes tetany with symptoms: decreased levels of calcium in the blood, cramps in the hands and feet, fingers bend toward the base, anxiety, difficulty sleeping, and tingling.
Parathyroid tumor causing too much parathormone levels in the blood. This resulted in the drawing of phosphorus and calcium in the bones, so that urine contains a lot of calcium and phosphorus. In people who develop this disease easily broken bones. This disease is called von Recklinghousen.
d. Adrenal gland / suprarenal / Kidney Kids
These glands are spherical, attached to the upper part of the kidney. In each kidney is a suprarenal glands and is divided into two parts, the outer part (the cortex) and the central portion (medulla). Damage to the cortex resulting in disease symptoms Addisondengan as follows: arises fatigue, decreased appetite, nausea, vomiting, sore in the body. In a state of fear or in a state of danger, adrenaline production increases so that increases the heart rate and more blood pumping. Another symptom is the widening of the bronchial tract, widening of the pupils, eyelids wide open, and followed by the hair stand up.
e. pancreas
There are several groups of cells in the pancreas known as the islets of Langerhans functions as an endocrine gland that produces the hormone insulin. This hormone controls the concentration of glucose in the blood. Excess glucose will be taken to the liver cells and then be converted into glycogen for storage. Deficiency of this hormone will cause diabetes. In addition to produce insulin, the pancreas also produces the hormone glucagon antagonist that works with the hormone insulin.
f. ovary
The ovaries are the female reproductive organs. In addition to producing eggs, the ovaries also produce hormones. There are two kinds of hormones produced by the ovaries is as follows.
1. Estrogen. This hormone is produced by Graaf follicles. Estrogen formation is stimulated by FSH. The function of estrogen is to induce and maintain secondary sex signs in women. Signs of secondary sex characteristics that can distinguish women with Aria regardless of gender. For example, the development of hips and breasts in women and the skin becomes more delicate.
2. Progesterone. This hormone is produced by the corpus luteum. Its formation is stimulated by LH and serves to prepare the uterine lining to receive a fertilized egg. The placenta forms of estrogen and progesterone during pregnancy in order to prevent the formation of FSH and LH. Thus, both of these hormones to maintain the pregnancy.
e. Testis
As well as the ovaries, testes are specialized in the male reproductive organs. In addition to producing sperm, testicular function as endocrine glands that produce hormones androgens, namely testosterone. Testosterone function raises and maintains continuity signs of secondary sex. For example, the sound bigger, has a mustache, and Adam's apple.
f. hormone
Hormones (from Greek, όρμή: hormones - "the move") is a chemical messenger between cells or between groups of cells. All multicellular organisms, including plants (see plant hormone article), producing hormones. The hormone serves to give a signal to the target cells, which then undertook an action or specific activities.
Actions taken due to hormonal messages vary widely, including among them is the stimulation or inhibition of growth and apoptosis (programmed cell death), activation or deactivation of the immune system, metabolic regulation and preparation of new activities (eg flying, mating, and child care), or phase life (eg, puberty and menopause). In many cases, one hormone may regulate the production and release of other hormones. Hormones also regulate the reproductive cycle in almost all multicellular organisms.
In principle, the regulation of production of hormones made by the hypothalamus (a part of the brain). The hypothalamus controls the secretion of many other glands, mainly through the pituitary gland, which also controls other glands. Hypothalamus instructs the pituitary gland to secrete hormones by sending untu regulatory factors to anterior lobe and posterior to send nerve impulses and send nerve impulses to the posterior lobe.
· Regulatory Factors
Regulatory factor is the chemical that controls the production of a hormone that has an important function for the body. This compound is delivered to the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland by the hypothalamus. There are two regulatory factors, namely releasing factor (releasing factor) which causes the pituitary gland to secrete certain hormones and inhibiting factors (inhibiting factors) which can stop the secretion of these hormones. An example is FSHRF (FSH-releasing factor) and LHRF (LH-releasing factor) that causes the release of hormones FSH and LH.
· Hormones antagonistic
Antagonistic hormone is a hormone that causes the opposite effect, for example, glucagon and insulin. When blood sugar levels are very down, the pancreas will produce glucagon to raise it again. High glucose levels cause the pancreas to produce insulin to lower the glucose levels.
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